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The Report on Maternity web tool provides health statistics about women giving birth, their pregnancy and childbirth experience and the characteristics of live-born babies in New cheap viagra canada Zealand click site. The web tool enables you to explore trends over time using interactive graphs and tables. Filtered results, data dictionaries and the full data sets can be downloaded from within the web tool.The web cheap viagra canada tool presents. the demographic profile of women giving birth (eg, age, ethnicity, deprivation) and selected antenatal factors (eg, BMI, smoking) events relating to labour and birth (eg, type of birth, interventions, place of birth) the demographic profile of live-born babies, their birthweight and gestation and care provided after birth.

Please use the link below to access the web tool cheap viagra canada. Additional information is provided to add context to the web tool. This document contains information about the data sources and analytical methods used to produce summary cheap viagra canada data, and a glossary of terms commonly used in the web tool. Key findings about births in 2018 58,503 women gave birth and 58,776 babies were live-born, a slight decrease from 2017.

The birth rate in 2018 was 60.4 per 1,000 females of reproductive cheap viagra canada age. Also a slight decrease from 2017 (61.7 per 1000 females of reproductive age) and the lowest birth rate in the last 10 years. Most women giving birth (92.9%) received care from a community-based Lead Maternity Carer Two-thirds (67.5%) of women giving birth registered with a Lead Maternity Carer in their first trimester of pregnancy. Up from less than half (47.1%) in 2009 cheap viagra canada.

Most women gave birth at a secondary (40.5%) or tertiary maternity facility (45.5%), 10.5% of women gave birth in a primary facility or birthing unit, 3.6% of women had home births. These rates have been stable over the last 10 years cheap viagra canada. Induction of labour, epidural analgesia, and episiotomy rates have continued an upward trend over the last 10 years. Rates of augmentation of established labour has continued a downward trend cheap viagra canada over this same period.

Caesarean section rates have increased over the last ten years to 28.4% of all births in 2018, the highest ever recorded. Both emergency and elective Caesarean section rates have increased over the same cheap viagra canada period. There has been a corresponding decrease in spontaneous vaginal birth (62.2%) and no change to rates of assisted vaginal birth (9.5%). There have been no changes to average birthweight or distribution of gestational age at birth in 2018 compared to 2017.

In 2018, 7.5% of cheap viagra canada babies were born preterm (before 37 weeks gestation). As in previous years, babies of small birthweight were more common among women under 20 years and aged 40 years and over, Indian women and women residing in areas of high neighbourhood deprivation. Preterm births were more common among women aged 40 years and over, Maori cheap viagra canada women and women residing in areas of high neighbourhood deprivation. Disclaimer In this web tool, maternity data was extracted and recalculated for the years 2007–2018 to reflect ongoing updates to data in the National Maternity Collection and the revision of population estimates and projections following each census.

For this reason, there may be cheap viagra canada small changes to some numbers and rates from those presented in previous publications and tables. We have quality checked the collection, extraction, and reporting of the data presented here. However, errors cheap viagra canada can occur. Contact the Ministry of Health if you have any concerns regarding any of the data or analyses presented here, at [email protected].As one of the leading causes of disability in New Zealand, musculoskeletal conditions generate a significant health, social and economic strain on both individual quality of life and health system costs.

Research indicates that one in every four adults are affected by musculoskeletal conditions, including arthritis, osteoporosis, lower back pain, and spinal disorders.The Mobility Action Programme (MAP) is an early intervention programme for people with musculoskeletal conditions. Seventeen pilots have been located with all twenty district health boards cheap viagra canada (DHBs) of New Zealand to deliver evidence informed, community based and multidisciplinary care. The Ministry commissioned Allen + Clarke to evaluate the effectiveness and impact of the MAP, and to provide an evidence base that identifies the models and approaches that achieve the programme’s intended outcomes. This report is the first stage to be released and covers the period from January 2016 when services cheap viagra canada commenced through to May 2018.

The final report will be available in early 2020 and will include further analysis on the longer term outcomes for participants. The key findings in this report are based on analysis of data cheap viagra canada from 3,484 health consumers. Statistically significant improvements in health outcomes data show improvements in mobility, function and pain, and people’s ability to self-manage their conditions. While there were improvements in general physical and mental health, these were not cheap viagra canada statistically significant.

Further impacts include reductions in visits to GPs and referrals to specialists. Find out more about the Mobility Action Programme..

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Light viagra for men price viagra coupon. What are symptoms of auditory processing disorder?. According to diagnostic guidelines from the American Academy of Audiology, some of the common symptoms of auditory processing disorder include. Difficulty listening when viagra coupon it’s noisy and there is a lot of background noise—hearing on phone calls is also often challenging.

Difficulty comprehending where sounds are coming from Difficulty following multi-step directions Difficulty participating in conversations—that is, not responding to questions, misunderstanding what people said, not following jokes or stories, or having trouble with straightforward instructions. People with APD may frequently say “What?. € after a question or ask for it to be viagra coupon repeated. Difficulty concentrating and a lack of focus.

A lack of appreciation for music, as well as a lack of musical abilities. Many of these symptoms are also viagra coupon often present with other disorders, notes the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA). €œAs audiologists, we say auditory processing disorder can coexist with other types of problems like ADHD or language processing [disorders],” says Dr. Light.

What causes auditory processing disorder? viagra coupon. The cause of auditory processing disorder is not always known, says Dr. Light. The disorder viagra coupon may be linked to some of the following factors.

Prenatal issues or a difficult birth — Sometimes, taking a detailed case history will reveal a low birth rate or other issues that may be the root cause of this condition, says Dr. Light. Other illnesses and conditions — Head trauma and chronic ear s may be viagra coupon related to this condition, per the Nemours Foundation. A family history — There may be a genetic component to this condition, notes ASHLA.

Age — Changes to the brain related to aging make it harder to process information as it’s spoken, says Dr. Light. Traumatic brain injuries — Head or blast injuries can lead to APD, says Dr. Light.

VA research has shown that veterans who suffered blast injuries are at risk of auditory processing disorder. Diagnosis A person with APD can perform perfectly on a hearing test that just involves listening to beeps in an otherwise silent environment. To diagnosis APD, audiologists will. Take a thorough case history — Remember, some of the risk factors potentially leading to APD can occur when in utero.

A detailed history can be helpful, therefore. An audiologist will ask questions about circumstances when hearing is difficult. With children, insight from other professionals (teachers, psychologists, and so on) can also be helpful, as well as details from parents. Perform hearing exams — A specific battery of tests are used to assess auditory processing function, Dr.

Light says. Before commencing with these tests, audiologists check for any issues with the ears (e.g., eardrum abnormalities) that need medical attention, as well as checking hearing sensitivity, she says. While the diagnosis is made by an audiologist, often a team of specialists—including speech-language pathologists and psychologists—also play a role in assessing symptoms and developing a treatment strategy, per the American Academy of Audiology. One of the diagnostic challenges of APD is that young children may not possess the verbal and communication skills to complete the full battery of tests that audiologists perform, says Dr.

Light. Treatment for APD There’s no pill or quick fix available when it comes to APD, says Dr. Light. However, there are frequently used treatment strategies, including tools.

Assistive listening technology. With a frequency modulation system, a speaker wears a wireless microphone that transmits to receivers in the ear of the person with APD. Often, it’s helpful in the classroom, since then “the teacher’s voice goes directly into the child’s ear, without getting polluted by other noises in the room,” says Dr. Light, who says the devices can be a helpful tactic for dealing with background noise.

Auditory training. Essentially, these strategies will be used to help people learn to hear. Depending on the specific type of disorder, this might be helping people distinguish between phonemes, or common sounds, like “pat” and “bat,” to recognize where sound is coming from, or focus on other hearing-related skills, per ASHA. Developing compensatory strategies.

As well, there are ways to learn strategies that help people work around the processing challenges, says ASHA, such as learning how to use mnemonics to recall information. Environmental changes. Asking people to speak slower, using notes, and opting for written over verbal instructions may be helpful, says the Nemours Foundation. Even a new seat—in the front of the classroom, instead of the back—can be a meaningful change.

No cure for this condition exists. Instead, treatment options will be determined by the specific form of APD occurring. Hidden hearing loss Some people do not have auditory processing disorder, but have many of the same symptoms. This problem originates in a different part of the brain and is known as hidden hearing loss.

Subtypes of auditory processing disorders There are different types of auditory processing problems, such as a decoding deficit, an auditory integration deficit, or an output organization deficit, that all sit under the umbrella of auditory processing disorder, Dr. Light explains. €œEach of these problems points to a different area of the brain that might be underdeveloped. We try to do deficit-specific interventions to target and stimulate that area,” she says.Audiology isn’t Sarah Sparks’s first career.

But her previous one “did not feel to me as though it was my permanent calling in life,” she says. Time spent soul-searching for more fulfilling work led her to audiology. Audiologist Sarah Sparks, explaining wherethe cochlear implant electrode array sitsinside the cochlea during a video sessionwith a patient. It’s probably no coincidence that Sparks landed on this field.

She’s deaf herself. “I was thinking about how I had never seen an audiologist myself who knew enough ASL to communicate with me in ASL,” says Sparks, a graduate of Gallaudet University’s Doctor of Audiology (Au.D.) program. It’s meaningful when an audiologist sees someone who can communicate with them fully in sign language, she says. Plus, Sparks is fascinated with the vestibular system (aka, the balance system in your inner ear).

Like many people who are deaf, she has reduced function in her vestibular organs, and she has big questions about it. How does vestibular loss affect children differently?. How does it relate to vision?. Language development?.

'Make a real difference' “Over time, it became clear to me that audiology would be a career pathway where I would be able to explore those questions and make a real difference in some of those issues, too,” she says. Sparks has a multifaceted career. She provides diagnostic cochlear implant and hearing aid services through a part-time role at a clinic. She also has a business of her own—Audiology Outside the Box—where she provides counseling and rehab services.

“Audiology appointments can happen really quickly, especially in fast-paced clinics,” she says. People leave with unanswered questions, or feeling confused and overwhelmed. By meeting with her, people have an opportunity to ask all their questions, dig into issues with devices, and so on. Plus, she’s pursuing a second doctoral degree, with a long-term goal of being a faculty member in an audiology program and doing research (as well as continuing to see patients).

Her unique background is an asset Sparks has progressive hearing loss—that is, she wasn’t born deaf, but lost her hearing over time. €œI'm not exactly sure of when that began,” she says, noting there weren’t audiologists where she grew up. Deaf and hard of hearing audiologists have distinct advantages, Sparks says. Sometimes there’s no substitute for insights drawn from lived experience.

Sparks can share examples of communication techniques and technologies that have personally worked for her. “We're able to provide empathy for the people that we're working with,” Sparks says. It’s also meaningful for parents of deaf or hard of hearing children, who may be concerned or uncertain about their child’s future or quality of life, she says. €œIt can really challenge their worries about what a life might be like as a deaf or hard of hearing person.” Plus, sometimes there’s no substitute for insights drawn from lived experience.

Sparks can share examples of communication techniques and technologies that have personally worked for her. “There are certain things that I have found that I think of that my colleagues don't necessarily think of when making recommendations to clients,” Sparks says. For instance, with a patient who had tremendous earwax and moisture build-up in his hearing aids, she went beyond a cookie-cutter recommendation to use a drying kit overnight. Instead, she suggested he try an electronic hearing aid dryer that she’d found effective herself.

That did the trick—the patient’s hearing aids function better now. Bridging both worlds “I was a hearing aid user for several years before I started using cochlear implants,” Sparks says. As Sparks notes in her Twitter bio, cochlear implants and sign language are not opposites. But cochlear implants can be contentious in the Deaf community.

Before studying to become an audiologist at Gallaudet University, Sparks thought of these devices as being for people who want to be hearing—and not part of Deaf culture. But on campus, she met people who signed and also had cochlear implants. They were “equally part of Deaf culture and of hearing communities,” adeptly integrating both aspects in their lives, she recalls. 'Really happy to be a cochlear implant user' With that in mind—and thinking of her challenges hearing young children and people with accents—she reconsidered.

“It was a very difficult decision for me and I really struggled with it for a long time. But after several months of adjusting and dealing with the emotional aspect of it, as well as the auditory rehab piece, I became really happy to be a cochlear implant user,” Sparks says. Having the implants makes it easier for her to hear and communicate with English speakers during audiology appointments, she says. And at home with her spouse, she sometimes opts to speak in English, and sometimes in ASL.

A message to people who are deaf or hard of hearing “I would encourage deaf and hard of hearing people who are interested in audiology as a career path to consider it seriously,” Sparks says. It can be challenging, she says. Fortunately, resources are available for support, such as the Association of Audiologists with Hearing Loss. “If this is something that you want to pursue, it can be a very rewarding thing," she says.

"And actually getting through to the end of it is worth it.".

€œMost people think you cheap viagra canada hear with your ears, and they are certainly the input point for hearing,” says Leah Light, AuD, the founder and director of the Brainchild Institute in Hollywood, FL. €œAuditory processing disorder occurs when your brain doesn’t process information correctly,” she says. A battery of tests are used to detectauditory processing disorder.

Auditory processing disorder is a hearing cheap viagra canada impairment—not a hearing loss, notes Dr. Light. You’ll also sometimes hear the condition referred to as central auditory processing disorder.

Affects all ages The Nemours Foundation estimates that 5 percent cheap viagra canada of school-aged children have this condition. And while it’s often associated with childhood, APD affects people of all ages. €œThere are many adults suffering from auditory processing disorder,” says Dr.

Light. What are symptoms of auditory processing disorder?. According to diagnostic guidelines from the American Academy of Audiology, some of the common symptoms of auditory processing disorder include.

Difficulty listening when it’s noisy and there is a lot of background noise—hearing on phone calls is also often challenging. Difficulty comprehending where sounds are coming from Difficulty following multi-step directions Difficulty participating in conversations—that is, not responding to questions, misunderstanding what people said, not following jokes or stories, or having trouble with straightforward instructions. People with APD may frequently say “What?.

€ after a question or ask for it to be repeated. Difficulty concentrating and a lack of focus. A lack of appreciation for music, as well as a lack of musical abilities.

Many of these symptoms are also often present with other disorders, notes the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA). €œAs audiologists, we say auditory processing disorder can coexist with other types of problems like ADHD or language processing [disorders],” says Dr. Light.

What causes auditory processing disorder?. The cause of auditory processing disorder is not always known, says Dr. Light.

The disorder may be linked to some of the following factors. Prenatal issues or a difficult birth — Sometimes, taking a detailed case history will reveal a low birth rate or other issues that may be the root cause of this condition, says Dr. Light.

Other illnesses and conditions — Head trauma and chronic ear s may be related to this condition, per the Nemours Foundation. A family history — There may be a genetic component to this condition, notes ASHLA. Age — Changes to the brain related to aging make it harder to process information as it’s spoken, says Dr.

Light. Traumatic brain injuries — Head or blast injuries can lead to APD, says Dr. Light.

VA research has shown that veterans who suffered blast injuries are at risk of auditory processing disorder. Diagnosis A person with APD can perform perfectly on a hearing test that just involves listening to beeps in an otherwise silent environment. To diagnosis APD, audiologists will.

Take a thorough case history — Remember, some of the risk factors potentially leading to APD can occur when in utero. A detailed history can be helpful, therefore. An audiologist will ask questions about circumstances when hearing is difficult.

With children, insight from other professionals (teachers, psychologists, and so on) can also be helpful, as well as details from parents. Perform hearing exams — A specific battery of tests are used to assess auditory processing function, Dr. Light says.

Before commencing with these tests, audiologists check for any issues with the ears (e.g., eardrum abnormalities) that need medical attention, as well as checking hearing sensitivity, she says. While the diagnosis is made by an audiologist, often a team of specialists—including speech-language pathologists and psychologists—also play a role in assessing symptoms and developing a treatment strategy, per the American Academy of Audiology. One of the diagnostic challenges of APD is that young children may not possess the verbal and communication skills to complete the full battery of tests that audiologists perform, says Dr.

Light. Treatment for APD There’s no pill or quick fix available when it comes to APD, says Dr. Light.

However, there are frequently used treatment strategies, including tools. Assistive listening technology. With a frequency modulation system, a speaker wears a wireless microphone that transmits to receivers in the ear of the person with APD.

Often, it’s helpful in the classroom, since then “the teacher’s voice goes directly into the child’s ear, without getting polluted by other noises in the room,” says Dr. Light, who says the devices can be a helpful tactic for dealing with background noise. Auditory training.

Essentially, these strategies will be used to help people learn to hear. Depending on the specific type of disorder, this might be helping people distinguish between phonemes, or common sounds, like “pat” and “bat,” to recognize where sound is coming from, or focus on other hearing-related skills, per ASHA. Developing compensatory strategies.

As well, there are ways to learn strategies that help people work around the processing challenges, says ASHA, such as learning how to use mnemonics to recall information. Environmental changes. Asking people to speak slower, using notes, and opting for written over verbal instructions may be helpful, says the Nemours Foundation.

Even a new seat—in the front of the classroom, instead of the back—can be a meaningful change. No cure for this condition exists. Instead, treatment options will be determined by the specific form of APD occurring.

Hidden hearing loss Some people do not have auditory processing disorder, but have many of the same symptoms. This problem originates in a different part of the brain and is known as hidden hearing loss. Subtypes of auditory processing disorders There are different types of auditory processing problems, such as a decoding deficit, an auditory integration deficit, or an output organization deficit, that all sit under the umbrella of auditory processing disorder, Dr.

Light explains. €œEach of these problems points to a different area of the brain that might be underdeveloped. We try to do deficit-specific interventions to target and stimulate that area,” she says.Audiology isn’t Sarah Sparks’s first career.

But her previous one “did not feel to me as though it was my permanent calling in life,” she says. Time spent soul-searching for more fulfilling work led her to audiology. Audiologist Sarah Sparks, explaining wherethe cochlear implant electrode array sitsinside the cochlea during a video sessionwith a patient.

It’s probably no coincidence that Sparks landed on this field. She’s deaf herself. “I was thinking about how I had never seen an audiologist myself who knew enough ASL to communicate with me in ASL,” says Sparks, a graduate of Gallaudet University’s Doctor of Audiology (Au.D.) program.

It’s meaningful when an audiologist sees someone who can communicate with them fully in sign language, she says. Plus, Sparks is fascinated with the vestibular system (aka, the balance system in your inner ear). Like many people who are deaf, she has reduced function in her vestibular organs, and she has big questions about it.

How does vestibular loss affect children differently?. How does it relate to vision?. Language development?.

'Make a real difference' “Over time, it became clear to me that audiology would be a career pathway where I would be able to explore those questions and make a real difference in some of those issues, too,” she says. Sparks has a multifaceted career. She provides diagnostic cochlear implant and hearing aid services through a part-time role at a clinic.

She also has a business of her own—Audiology Outside the Box—where she provides counseling and rehab services. “Audiology appointments can happen really quickly, especially in fast-paced clinics,” she says. People leave with unanswered questions, or feeling confused and overwhelmed.

By meeting with her, people have an opportunity to ask all their questions, dig into issues with devices, and so on. Plus, she’s pursuing a second doctoral degree, with a long-term goal of being a faculty member in an audiology program and doing research (as well as continuing to see patients). Her unique background is an asset Sparks has progressive hearing loss—that is, she wasn’t born deaf, but lost her hearing over time.

€œI'm not exactly sure of when that began,” she says, noting there weren’t audiologists where she grew up. Deaf and hard of hearing audiologists have distinct advantages, Sparks says. Sometimes there’s no substitute for insights drawn from lived experience.

Sparks can share examples of communication techniques and technologies that have personally worked for her. “We're able to provide empathy for the people that we're working with,” Sparks says. It’s also meaningful for parents of deaf or hard of hearing children, who may be concerned or uncertain about their child’s future or quality of life, she says.

€œIt can really challenge their worries about what a life might be like as a deaf or hard of hearing person.” Plus, sometimes there’s no substitute for insights drawn from lived experience. Sparks can share examples of communication techniques and technologies that have personally worked for her. “There are certain things that I have found that I think of that my colleagues don't necessarily think of when making recommendations to clients,” Sparks says.

For instance, with a patient who had tremendous earwax and moisture build-up in his hearing aids, she went beyond a cookie-cutter recommendation to use a drying kit overnight. Instead, she suggested he try an electronic hearing aid dryer that she’d found effective herself. That did the trick—the patient’s hearing aids function better now.

Bridging both worlds “I was a hearing aid user for several years before I started using cochlear implants,” Sparks says. As Sparks notes in her Twitter bio, cochlear implants and sign language are not opposites. But cochlear implants can be contentious in the Deaf community.

Before studying to become an audiologist at Gallaudet University, Sparks thought of these devices as being for people who want to be hearing—and not part of Deaf culture. But on campus, she met people who signed and also had cochlear implants. They were “equally part of Deaf culture and of hearing communities,” adeptly integrating both aspects in their lives, she recalls.

'Really happy to be a cochlear implant user' With that in mind—and thinking of her challenges hearing young children and people with accents—she reconsidered.

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The Shop Ardsley is located at 711 Saw Mill River Road. Click here to sign up for Daily Voice's free daily emails and news alerts..

For those looking for a neighborhood spot that serves a little of everything, and does it all cheap viagra canada well then a Westchester restaurant is your new favorite stop.The Shop Ardsley, in Ardsley, starts the day with bagels and omelets and wraps, slides into lunch with burgers and salads and sandwiches, and then transforms into dinner with steaks and pasta and chicken dishes.The breakfast menu is pretty straightforward with a mix of bagels, omelets, pancakes, and the like. The lunch menu features a nice choice of burgers, sandwiches, and salads.The dinner menu takes things up a notch with such offerings as steaks, fresh seafood (including tuna), roasted and fried chicken, interesting pasta dishes, and a host of other choices.Mac and cheese with steak.YelpOne Yelper put it this way. "The good was really good, and a cute little place to grab a cheap viagra canada casual dinner. The owner Michael was very friendly &.

Accommodating. A great go-to place in the neighborhood."A look at Yelp shows that favorites tend to be bagels, cheap viagra canada burgers, and pasta dishes. Another reviewer said. "Had dinner with a friend.

Burgers came out cheap viagra canada cooked as ordered &. Very tasty!. Service friendly and attentive. Great local place for fast-casual dinner."Yum, meatballs.YelpThe restaurant has a special menu for children cheap viagra canada for $10 that includes great choices that kids love to eat, and healthy choices that parents love them to eat.

"I just ate dinner with my son at The Shop. It's a beautiful place, really relaxing to eat there cheap viagra canada. We had a Ceasar salad and cheddar burger. The food was very fresh and delicious.

We will be cheap viagra canada returning!. "The burger.YelpPrices run moderate to some higher dinner prices. Very kid-friendly. Can be a wait cheap viagra canada at prime times.

The Shop Ardsley is located at 711 Saw Mill River Road. Click here to sign up for Daily Voice's free daily emails and news alerts..

Viagra contraindications

Abstract Sexual health, an essential component of individual's health, is influenced by many complex issues including sexual viagra contraindications behavior, attitudes, societal, and cultural factors on the one hand and while on the other hand, biological aspects, genetic predisposition, my response and associated mental and physical illnesses. Sexual health is a neglected area, even though it influences mortality, morbidity, and disability. Dhat syndrome (DS), the term viagra contraindications coined by Dr. N. N.

Wig, has been at the forefront of advancements in understanding and misunderstanding. The concept of DS is still evolving being treated as a culture-bound syndrome in the past to a syndrome of depression and treated as “a culturally determined idiom of distress.” It is bound with myths, fallacies, prejudices, secrecy, exaggeration, and value-laden judgments. Although it has been reported from many countries, much of the literature has emanated from Asia, that too mainly from India. The research in India has ranged from the study of a few cases in the past to recent national multicentric studies concerning phenomenology and beliefs of patients. The epidemiological studies have ranged from being hospital-based to population-based studies in rural and urban settings.

There are studies on the management of individual cases by resolving sexual myths, relaxation exercises, supportive psychotherapy, anxiolytics, and antidepressants to broader and deeper research concerning cognitive behavior therapy. The presentation looks into DS as a model case highlighting the importance of exploring sexual health concerns in the Indian population in general and in particular need to reconsider DS in the light of the newly available literature. It makes a fervent appeal for the inclusion of DS in the mainstream diagnostic categories in the upcoming revisions of the diagnostic manuals which can pave the way for a better understanding and management of DS and sexual problems.Keywords. Culture-bound syndrome, Dhat syndrome, Dhat syndrome management, Dhat syndrome prevalence, psychiatric comorbidity, sexual disordersHow to cite this article:Sathyanarayana Rao T S. History and mystery of Dhat syndrome.

A critical look at the current understanding and future directions. Indian J Psychiatry 2021;63:317-25 Introduction Mr. President, Chairpersons, my respected teachers and seniors, my professional colleagues and friends, ladies and gentlemen:I deem it a proud privilege and pleasure to receive and to deliver DLN Murti Rao Oration Award for 2020. I am humbled at this great honor and remain grateful to the Indian Psychiatric Society (IPS) in general and the awards committee in particular. I would like to begin my presentation with my homage to Professor DLN Murti Rao, who was a Doyen of Psychiatry.[1] I have a special connection to the name as Dr.

Doddaballapura Laxmi Narasimha Murti Rao, apart from a family name, obtained his medical degree from Mysore Medical College, Mysuru, India, the same city where I have served last 33 years in JSS Medical College and JSS Academy of Higher Education and Research. His name carries the reverence in the corridors of the current National Institute of Mental Health and Neuro Sciences (NIMHANS) at Bangalore which was All India Institute of Mental Health, when he served as Head and the Medical Superintendent. Another coincidence was his untimely demise in 1962, the same year another Doyen Dr. Wig[2],[3] published the article on a common but peculiar syndrome in the Indian context and gave the name Dhat syndrome (DS). Even though Dr.

Wig is no more, his legacy of profound contribution to psychiatry and psychiatric education in general and service to the society and Mental Health, in particular, is well documented. His keen observation and study culminated in synthesizing many aspects and developments in DS.I would also like to place on record my humble pranams to my teachers from Christian Medical College, Vellore – Dr. Abraham Varghese, the first Editor of the Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine and Dr. K. Kuruvilla, Past Editor of Indian Journal of Psychiatry whose legacies I carried forward for both the journals.

I must place on record that my journey in the field of Sexual Medicine was sown by Dr. K. Kuruvilla and subsequent influence of Dr. Ajit Avasthi from Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research from Chandigarh as my role model in the field. There are many more who have shaped and nurtured my interest in the field of sex and sexuality.The term “Dhat” was taken from the Sanskrit language, which is an important word “Dhatu” and has known several meanings such as “metal,” a “medicinal constituent,” which can be considered as most powerful material within the human body.[4] The Dhat disorder is mainly known for “loss of semen”, and the DS is a well-known “culture-bound syndrome (CBS).”[4] The DS leads to several psychosexual disorders such as physical weakness, tiredness, anxiety, appetite loss, and guilt related to the loss of semen through nocturnal emission, in urine and by masturbation as mentioned in many studies.[4],[5],[6] Conventionally, Charaka Samhita mentions “waste of bodily humors” being linked to the “loss of Dhatus.”[5] Semen has even been mentioned by Aristotle as a “soul substance” and weakness associated with its loss.[6] This has led to a plethora of beliefs about “food-blood-semen” relationship where the loss of semen is considered to reduce vitality, potency, and psychophysiological strength.

People have variously attributed DS to excessive masturbation, premarital sex, promiscuity, and nocturnal emissions. Several past studies have emphasized that CBS leads to “anxiety for loss of semen” is not only prevalent in the Indian subcontinent but also a global phenomenon.[7],[8],[9],[10],[11],[12],[13],[14],[15],[16],[17],[18],[19],[20]It is important to note that DS manifestation and the psychosexual features are based on the impact of culture, demographic profiles, and the socioeconomic status of the patients.[7],[8],[9],[10],[11],[12],[13],[14],[15],[16],[17],[18],[19],[20] According to Leff,[21] culture depends upon norms, values, and myths, based on a specific area, and is also shared by the indigenous individuals of that area. Tiwari et al.[22] mentioned in their study that “culture is closely associated with mental disorders through social and psychological activities.” With this background, the paper attempts to highlight the multidimensional construct of DS for a better clinical understanding in routine practice. Dhat Syndrome. A Separate Entity or a “Cultural Variant” of Depression Even though DS has been studied for years now, a consensus on the definition is yet to be achieved.

It has mostly been conceptualized as a multidimensional psychosomatic entity consisting of anxiety, depressive, somatic, and sexual phenomenology. Most importantly, abnormal and erroneous attributions are considered to be responsible for the genesis of DS. The most important debate is, however, related to the nosological status of DS. Although considered to a CBS unique to India, it has also been increasingly reported in China, Europe, Japan, Malaysia, Russia, and America.[11] The consistency and validity of its diagnosis have been consistently debated, and one of the most vital questions that emerged was. Can there be another way to conceptualize DS?.

There is no single answer to that question. Apart from an independent entity, the diagnostic validity of which has been limited in longitudinal studies,[23] it has also been a cultural variant of depressive and somatization disorders. Mumford[11] in his study of Asian patients with DS found a significant association with depressed mood, anxiety, and fatigue. Around the same time, another study by Chadha[24] reported comorbidities in DS at a rate of 50%, 32%, and 18% related to depression, somatoform disorders, and anxiety, respectively. Depression continued to be reported as the most common association of DS in many studies.[25],[26] This “cause-effect” dilemma can never be fully resolved.

Whether “loss of semen” and the cultural attributions to it leads to the affective symptoms or whether low mood and neuroticism can lead to DS in appropriate cultural context are two sides of the argument. However, the cognitive biases resulting in the attributional errors of DS and the subsequently maintained attitudes with relation to sexuality can be explained by the depressive cognitions and concepts of learned helplessness. Balhara[27] has argued that since DS is not really culture specific as thought of earlier, it should not be solely categorized as a functional somatic syndrome, as that can have detrimental effects on its understanding and management. He also mentions that the underlying “emotional distress and cultural contexts” are not unique to DS but can be related to any psychiatric syndrome for that matter. On the contrary, other researchers have warned that subsuming DS and other CBS under the broader rubric of “mood disorders” can lead to neglect and reductionism in disorder like DS that can have unique cultural connotations.[28] Over the years, there have been multiple propositions to relook and relabel CBS like DS.

Considering it as a variant of depression or somatization can make it a “cultural phenotype” of these disorders in certain regions, thus making it easier for the classificatory systems. This dichotomous debate seems never-ending, but clinically, it is always better to err on over-diagnosing and over-treating depression and anxiety in DS, which can improve the well-being of the distressed patients. Why Discuss Dhat Syndrome. Implications in Clinical Practice DS might occur independently or associated with multiple comorbidities. It has been a widely recognized clinical condition in various parts of the world, though considered specific to the Indian subcontinent.

The presentation can often be polymorphic with symptom clusters of affective, somatic, behavioral, and cognitive manifestations.[29] Being common in rural areas, the first contacts of the patients are frequently traditional faith healers and less often, the general practitioners. A psychiatric referral occurs much later, if at all. This leads to underdetection and faulty treatments, which can strengthen the already existing misattributions and misinformation responsible for maintaining the disorder. Furthermore, depression and sexual dysfunction can be the important comorbidities that if untreated, lead to significant psychosocial dysfunction and impaired quality of life.[30] Besides many patients of DS believe that their symptoms are due to failure of interpersonal relationships, s, and heredity, which might cause early death and infertility. This contributes to the vicious cycle of fear and panic.[31] Doctor shopping is another challenge and failure to detect and address the concern of DS might lead to dropping out from the care.[15] Rao[17] in their epidemiological study reported 12.5% prevalence in the general population, with 20.5% and 50% suffering from comorbid depression and sexual disorders.

The authors stressed upon the importance of early detection of DS for the psychosexual and social well-being. Most importantly, the multidimensional presentation of DS can at certain times be a facade overshadowing underlying neurotic disorders (anxiety, depression, somatoform, hypochondriasis, and phobias), obsessive-compulsive spectrum disorders and body dysmorphic disorders, delusional disorders, sexual disorders (premature ejaculation and erectile dysfunction) and infectious disorders (urinary tract s, sexually transmitted diseases), and even stress-related manifestations in otherwise healthy individuals.[4],[14],[15] This significant overlap of symptomatology, increased prevalence, and marked comorbidity make it all the more important for physicians to make sense out of the construct of DS. That can facilitate prompt detection and management of DS in routine clinical practice.In an earlier review study, it was observed that few studies are undertaken to update the research works from published articles as an updated review, systemic review, world literature review, etc., on DS and its management approach.[29],[32],[33],[34],[35] The present paper attempts to compile the evidence till date on DS related to its nosology, critique, manifestations, and management plan. The various empirical studies on DS all over the world will be briefly discussed along with the implications and importance of the syndrome. The Construct of Dhat Syndrome.

Summary of Current Evidence DS is a well-known CBS, which is defined as undue concern about the weakening effects after the passage of semen in urine or through nocturnal emission that has been stated by the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD-10).[36] It is also known as “semen loss syndrome” by Shakya,[20] which is prevalent mainly in the Indian subcontinent[37] and has also been reported in the South-Eastern and western population.[15],[16],[20],[32],[38],[39],[40],[41] Individuals with “semen loss anxiety” suffer from a myriad of psychosexual symptoms, which have been attributed to “loss of vital essence through semen” (common in South Asia).[7],[15],[16],[17],[32],[37],[41],[42],[43] The various studies related to attributes of DS and their findings are summarized further.Prakash et al.[5] studied 100 DS patients through 139 symptoms of the Associated Symptoms Scale. They studied sociodemographic profile, Hamilton Depression Rating Scale, Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale, Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview, and Postgraduate Institute Neuroticism Scale. The study found a wide range of physical, anxiety, depression, sexual, and cognitive symptoms. Most commonly associated symptoms were found as per score ≥1. This study reported several parameters such as the “sense of being unhealthy” (99%), worry (99%), feeling “no improvement despite treatment” (97%), tension (97%), tiredness (95%), fatigue (95%), weakness (95%), and anxiety (95%).

The common sexual disorders were observed as loss of masculinity (83%), erectile dysfunction (54%), and premature ejaculation (53%). Majority of patients had faced mild or moderate level of symptoms in which 47% of the patients reported severe weakness. Overall distress and dysfunction were observed as 64% and 81% in the studied subjects, respectively.A study in Taiwan involved 87 participants from a Urology clinic. Most of them have sexual neurosis (Shen-K'uei syndrome).[7] More than one-third of the patients belonged to lower social class and symptoms of depression, somatization, anxiety, masturbation, and nocturnal emissions. Other bodily complaints as reported were sleep disturbances, fatigue, dizziness, backache, and weakness.

Nearly 80% of them considered that all of their problems were due to masturbatory practices.De Silva and Dissanayake[8] investigated several manifestations on semen loss syndrome in the psychiatric clinic of Colombo General Hospital, Sri Lanka. Beliefs regarding effects of semen loss and help-seeking sought for DS were explored. 38 patients were studied after psychiatrically ill individuals and those with organic disorders were excluded. Duration of semen loss varied from 1 to 20 years. Every participant reported excessive loss of semen and was preoccupied with it.

The common forms of semen loss were through nocturnal emission, masturbation, urinary loss, and through sexual activities. Most of them reported multiple modes of semen loss. Masturbatory frequency and that of nocturnal emissions varied significantly. More than half of the patients reported all types of complaints (psychological, sexual, somatic, and genital).In the study by Chadda and Ahuja,[9] 52 psychiatric patients (mostly adolescents and young adults) complained of passing “Dhat” in urine. They were assessed for a period of 6 months.

More than 80% of them complained of body weakness, aches, and pains. More than 50% of the patients suffered from depression and anxiety. All the participants felt that their symptoms were due to loss of “dhat” in urine, attributed to excessive masturbation, extramarital and premarital sex. Half of those who faced sexual dysfunctions attributed them to semen loss.Mumford[11] proposed a controversial explanation of DS arguing that it might be a part of other psychiatric disorders, like depression. A total of 1000 literate patients were recruited from a medical outdoor in a public sector hospital in Lahore, Pakistan.

About 600 educated patients were included as per Bradford Somatic Inventory (BSI). Men with DS reported greater symptoms on BSI than those without DS. 60 psychiatric patients were also recruited from the same hospital and diagnosed using Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM)-III-R. Among them, 33% of the patients qualified for “Dhat” items on BSI. The symptoms persisted for more than 15 days.

It was observed that symptoms of DS highly correlated with BSI items, namely erectile dysfunction, burning sensation during urination, fatigue, energy loss, and weakness. This comparative study indicated that patients with DS suffered more from depressive disorders than without DS and the age group affected by DS was mostly the young.Grover et al.[15] conducted a study on 780 male patients aged >16 years in five centers (Chandigarh, Jaipur, Faridkot, Mewat, and New Delhi) of Northern India, 4 centers (2 from Kolkata, 1 each in Kalyani and Bhubaneswar) of Eastern India, 2 centers (Agra and Lucknow) of Central India, 2 centers (Ahmedabad and Wardha) of Western India, and 2 centers of Southern India (both located at Mysore) spread across the country by using DS questionnaire. Nearly one-third of the patients were passing “Dhat” multiple times a week. Among them, nearly 60% passed almost a spoonful of “Dhat” each time during a loss. This work on sexual disorders reported that the passage of “Dhat” was mostly attributed to masturbation (55.1%), dreams on sex (47.3%), sexual desire (42.8%), and high energy foods consumption (36.7%).

Mostly, the participants experienced passage of Dhat as “night falls” (60.1%) and “while passing stools” (59.5%). About 75.6% showed weakness in sexual ability as a common consequence of the “loss of Dhat.” The associated symptoms were depression, hopelessness, feeling low, decreased energy levels, weakness, and lack of pleasure. Erectile problems and premature ejaculation were also present.Rao[17] in his first epidemiological study done in Karnataka, India, showed the prevalence rate of DS in general male population as 12.5%. It was found that 57.5% were suffering either from comorbid depression or anxiety disorders. The prevalence of psychiatric and sexual disorders was about three times higher with DS compared to non-DS subjects.

One-third of the cases (32.8%) had no comorbidity in hospital (urban). One-fifth (20.5%) and 50% subjects (51.3%) had comorbid depressive disorders and sexual dysfunction. The psychosexual symptoms were found among 113 patients who had DS. The most common psychological symptoms reported by the subjects with DS were low self-esteem (100%), loss of interest in any activity (95.60%), feeling of guilt (92.00%), and decreased social interaction (90.30%). In case of sexual disorders, beliefs were held commonly about testes becoming smaller (92.00%), thinness of semen (86.70%), decreased sexual capabilities (83.20%), and tilting of penis (70.80%).Shakya[20] studied a clinicodemographic profile of DS patients in psychiatry outpatient clinic of B.

P. Koirala Institute of Health Sciences, Dharan, Nepal. A total of 50 subjects were included in this study, and the psychiatric diagnoses as well as comorbidities were investigated as per the ICD-10 criteria. Among the subjects, most of the cases had symptoms of depression and anxiety, and all the subjects were worried about semen loss. Somehow these subjects had heard or read that semen loss or masturbation is unhealthy practice.

The view of participants was that semen is very “precious,” needs preservation, and masturbation is a malpractice. Beside DS, two-thirds of the subjects had comorbid depression.In another Indian study, Chadda et al.[24] compared patients with DS with those affected with neurotic/depressive disorders. Among 100 patients, 50%, 32%, and 18% reported depression, somatic problems, and anxiety, respectively. The authors argued that cases of DS have similar symptom dimensions as mood and anxiety disorders.Dhikav et al.[31] examined prevalence and management depression comorbid with DS. DSM-IV and Hamilton Depression Rating Scale were used for assessments.

About 66% of the patients met the DSM-IV diagnostic criteria of depression. They concluded that depression was a frequent comorbidity in DS patients.In a study by Perme et al.[37] from South India that included 32 DS patients, the control group consisted of 33 people from the same clinic without DS, depression, and anxiety. The researchers followed the guidelines of Bhatia and Malik's for the assessment of primary complaints of semen loss through “nocturnal emissions, masturbation, sexual intercourse, and passing of semen before and after urine.” The assessment was done based on several indices, namely “Somatization Screening Index, Illness Behavior Questionnaire, Somatosensory Amplification Scale, Whitley Index, and Revised Chalder Fatigue Scale.” Several complaints such as somatic complaints, hypochondriacal beliefs, and fatigue were observed to be significantly higher among patients with DS compared to the control group.A study conducted in South Hall (an industrial area in the borough of Middlesex, London) included Indian and Pakistani immigrants. Young men living separately from their wives reported promiscuity, some being infected with gonorrhea and syphilis. Like other studies, nocturnal emission, weakness, and impotency were the other reported complaints.

Semen was considered to be responsible for strength and vigor by most patients. Compared to the sexual problems of Indians, the British residents complained of pelvic issues and backache.In another work, Bhatia et al.[42] undertook a study on culture-bound syndromes and reported that 76.7% of the sample had DS followed by possession syndrome and Koro (a genital-related anxiety among males in South-East Asia). Priyadarshi and Verma[43] performed a study in Urology Department of S M S Hospital, Jaipur, India. They conducted the study among 110 male patients who complained of DS and majority of them were living alone (54.5%) or in nuclear family (30%) as compared to joint family. Furthermore, 60% of them reported of never having experienced sex.Nakra et al.[44] investigated incidence and clinical features of 150 consecutive patients who presented with potency complaints in their clinic.

Clinical assessments were done apart from detailed sexual history. The patients were 15–50 years of age, educated up to mid-school and mostly from a rural background. Most of them were married and reported premarital sexual practices, while nearly 67% of them practiced masturbation from early age. There was significant guilt associated with nocturnal emissions and masturbation. Nearly 27% of the cases reported DS-like symptoms attributing their health problems to semen loss.Behere and Nataraj[45] reported that majority of the patients with DS presented with comorbidities of physical weakness, anxiety, headache, sad mood, loss of appetite, impotence, and premature ejaculation.

The authors stated that DS in India is a symptom complex commonly found in younger age groups (16–23 years). The study subjects presented with complaints of whitish discharge in urine and believed that the loss of semen through masturbation was the reason for DS and weakness.Singh et al.[46] studied 50 cases with DS and sexual problems (premature ejaculation and impotence) from Punjab, India, after exclusion of those who were psychiatrically ill. It was assumed in the study that semen loss is considered synonymous to “loss of something precious”, hence its loss would be associated with low mood and grief. Impotency (24%), premature ejaculation (14%), and “Dhat” in urine (40%) were the common complaints observed. Patients reported variety of symptoms including anxiety, depression, appetite loss, sleep problems, bodily pains, and headache.

More than half of the patients were independently diagnosed with depression, and hence, the authors argued that DS may be a manifestation of depressive disorders.Bhatia and Malik[47] reported that the most common complaints associated with DS were physical weakness, fatigue and palpitation, insomnia, sad mood, headache, guilt feeling and suicidal ideation, impotence, and premature ejaculation. Psychiatric disorders were found in 69% of the patients, out of which the most common was depression followed by anxiety, psychosis, and phobia. About 15% of the patients were found to have premature ejaculation and 8% had impotence.Bhatia et al.[48] examined several biological variables of DS after enrolment of 40 patients in a psychosexual clinic in Delhi. Patients had a history of impotence, premature ejaculation, and loss of semen (after exclusion of substance abuse and other psychiatric disorders). Twenty years was the mean age of onset and semen loss was mainly through masturbation and sexual intercourse.

67.5% and 75% of them reported sexual disorders and psychiatric comorbidity while 25%, 12.5%, and 37.5% were recorded to suffer from ejaculatory impotence, premature ejaculation, and depression (with anxiety), respectively.Bhatia[49] conducted a study on CBS among 60 patients attending psychiatric outdoor in a teaching hospital. The study revealed that among all patients with CBSs, DS was the most common (76.7%) followed by possession syndrome (13.3%) and Koro (5%). Hypochondriasis, sexually transmitted diseases, and depression were the associated comorbidities. Morrone et al.[50] studied 18 male patients with DS in the Dermatology department who were from Bangladesh and India. The symptoms observed were mainly fatigue and nonspecific somatic symptoms.

DS patients manifested several symptoms in psychosocial, religious, somatic, and other domains. The reasons provided by the patients for semen loss were urinary loss, nocturnal emission, and masturbation. Dhat Syndrome. The Epidemiology The typical demographic profile of a DS patient has been reported to be a less educated, young male from lower socioeconomic status and usually from rural areas. In the earlier Indian studies by Carstairs,[51],[52],[53] it was observed that majority of the cases (52%–66.7%) were from rural areas, belonged to “conservative families and posed rigid views about sex” (69%-73%).

De Silva and Dissanayake[8] in their study on semen loss syndrome reported the average age of onset of DS to be 25 years with most of them from lower-middle socioeconomic class. Chadda and Ahuja[9] studied young psychiatric patients who complained of semen loss. They were mainly manual laborers, farmers, and clerks from low socioeconomic status. More than half were married and mostly uneducated. Khan[13] studied DS patients in Pakistan and reported that majority of the patients visited Hakims (50%) and Homeopaths (24%) for treatment.

The age range was wide between 12 and 65 years with an average age of 24 years. Among those studied, majority were unmarried (75%), literacy was up to matriculation and they belonged to lower socioeconomic class. Grover et al.[15] in their study of 780 male subjects showed the average age of onset to be 28.14 years and the age ranged between 21 and 30 years (55.3%). The subjects were single or unmarried (51.0%) and married (46.7%). About 23.5% of the subjects had graduated and most were unemployed (73.5%).

Majority of subjects were lower-middle class (34%) and had lower incomes. Rao[17] studied 907 subjects, in which majority were from 18 to 30 years (44.5%). About 45.80% of the study subjects were illiterates and very few had completed postgraduation. The subjects were both married and single. Majority of the subjects were residing in nuclear family (61.30%) and only 0.30% subjects were residing alone.

Most of the patients did not have comorbid addictive disorders. The subjects were mainly engaged in agriculture (43.40%). Majority of the subjects were from lower middle and upper lower socioeconomic class.Shakya[20] had studied the sociodemographic profile of 50 patients with DS. The average age of the studied patients was 25.4 years. The age ranges in decreasing order of frequency were 16–20 years (34%) followed by 21–25 years (28%), greater than 30 years (26%), 26–30 years (10%), and 11–15 years (2%).

Further, the subjects were mostly students (50%) and rest were in service (26%), farmers (14%), laborers (6%), and business (4%), respectively. Dhikav et al.[31] conducted a study on 30 patients who had attended the Psychiatry Outpatient Clinic of a tertiary care hospital with complaints of frequently passing semen in urine. In the studied patients, the age ranged between 20 and 40 years with an average age of 29 years and average age of onset of 19 years. The average duration of illness was that of 11 months. Most of the studied patients were unmarried (64.2%) and educated till middle or high school (70%).

Priyadarshi and Verma[43] performed a study in 110 male patients with DS. The average age of the patients was 23.53 years and it ranged between 15 and 68 years. The most affected age group of patients was of 18–25 years, which comprised about 60% of patients. On the other hand, about 25% ranged between 25 and 35 years, 10% were lesser than 18 years of age, and 5.5% patients were aged >35 years. Higher percentage of the patients were unmarried (70%).

Interestingly, high prevalence of DS was found in educated patients and about 50% of patients were graduate or above but most of the patients were either unemployed or student (49.1%). About 55% and 24.5% patients showed monthly family income of <10,000 and 5000 Indian Rupees (INR), respectively. Two-third patients belonged to rural areas of residence. Behere and Nataraj[45] found majority of the patients with DS (68%) to be between 16 and 25 years age. About 52% patients were married while 48% were unmarried and from lower socioeconomic strata.

The duration of DS symptoms varied widely. Singh[46] studied patients those who reported with DS, impotence, and premature ejaculation and reported the average age of the affected to be 21.8 years with a younger age of onset. Only a few patients received higher education. Bhatia and Malik[47] as mentioned earlier reported that age at the time of onset of DS ranged from 16 to 24 years. More than half of them were single.

It was observed that most patients had some territorial education (91.67%) but few (8.33%) had postgraduate education or professional training. Finally, Bhatia et al.[48] studied cases of sexual dysfunctions and reported an average age of 21.6 years among the affected, majority being unmarried (80%). Most of those who had comorbid DS symptoms received minimal formal education. Management. A Multimodal Approach As mentioned before, individuals affected with DS often seek initial treatment with traditional healers, practitioners of alternative medicine, and local quacks.

As a consequence, varied treatment strategies have been popularized. Dietary supplements, protein and iron-rich diet, Vitamin B and C-complexes, antibiotics, multivitamin injections, herbal “supplements,” etc., have all been used in the treatment though scientific evidence related to them is sparse.[33] Frequent change of doctors, irregular compliance to treatment, and high dropout from health care are the major challenges, as the attributional beliefs toward DS persist in the majority even after repeated reassurance.[54] A multidisciplinary approach (involving psychiatrists, clinical psychologists, psychiatric social workers) is recommended and close liaison with the general physicians, the Ayurveda, Yoga, Unani, Siddha, Homeopathy practitioners, dermatologists, venereologists, and neurologists often help. The role of faith healers and local counselors is vital, and it is important to integrate them into the care of DS patients, rather than side-tracking them from the system. Community awareness needs to be increased especially in primary health care for early detection and appropriate referrals. Follow-up data show two-thirds of patients affected with DS recovering with psychoeducation and low-dose sedatives.[45] Bhatia[49] studied 60 cases of DS and reported better response to anti-anxiety and antidepressant medications compared to psychotherapy alone.

Classically, the correction of attributional biases through empathy, reflective, and nonjudgmental approaches has been proposed.[38] Over the years, sex education, psychotherapy, psychoeducation, relaxation techniques, and medications have been advocated in the management of DS.[9],[55] In psychotherapy, cognitive behavioral and brief solution-focused approaches are useful to target the dysfunctional assumptions and beliefs in DS. The role of sex education is vital involving the basic understanding of sexual anatomy and physiology of sexuality. This needs to be tailored to the local terminology and beliefs. Biofeedback has also been proposed as a treatment modality.[4] Individual stress factors that might have precipitated DS need to be addressed. A detailed outline of assessment, evaluation, and management of DS is beyond the scope of this article and has already been reported in the IPS Clinical Practice Guidelines.[56] The readers are referred to these important guidelines for a comprehensive read on management.

Probably, the most important factor is to understand and resolve the sociocultural contexts in the genesis of DS in each individual. Adequate debunking of the myths related to sexuality and culturally appropriate sexual education is vital both for the prevention and treatment of DS.[56] Adequate treatment of comorbidities such as depression and anxiety often helps in reduction of symptoms, more so when the DS is considered to be a manifestation of the same. Future of Dhat Syndrome. The Way Forward Classifications in psychiatry have always been fraught with debates and discussion such as categorical versus dimensional, biological versus evolutionary. CBS like DS forms a major area of this nosological controversy.

Longitudinal stability of a diagnosis is considered to be an important part of its independent categorization. Sameer et al.[23] followed up DS patients for 6.0 ± 3.5 years and concluded that the “pure” variety of DS is not a stable diagnostic entity. The authors rather proposed DS as a variant of somatoform disorder, with cultural explanations. The right “place” for DS in classification systems has mostly been debated and theoretically fluctuant.[14] Sridhar et al.[57] mentioned the importance of reclassifying DS from a clinically, phenomenologically, psycho-pathologically, and diagnostically valid standpoint. Although both ICD and DSM have been culturally sensitive to classification, their approach to DS has been different.

While ICD-10 considers DS under “other nonpsychotic mental disorders” (F48), DSM-V mentions it only in appendix section as “cultural concepts of distress” not assigning the condition any particular number.[12],[58] Fundamental questions have actually been raised about its separate existence altogether,[35] which further puts its diagnostic position in doubt. As discussed in the earlier sections, an alternate hypothesization of DS is a cultural variant of depression, rather than a “true syndrome.”[27] Over decades, various schools of thought have considered DS either to be a global phenomenon or a cultural “idiom” of distress in specific geographical regions or a manifestation of other primary psychiatric disorders.[59] Qualitative studies in doctors have led to marked discordance in their opinion about the validity and classificatory area of DS.[60] The upcoming ICD-11 targets to pay more importance to cultural contexts for a valid and reliable classification. However, separating the phenomenological boundaries of diseases might lead to subsetting the cultural and contextual variants in broader rubrics.[61],[62] In that way, ICD-11 might propose alternate models for distinction of CBS like DS at nosological levels.[62] It is evident that various factors include socioeconomics, acceptability, and sustainability influence global classificatory systems, and this might influence the “niche” of DS in the near future. It will be interesting to see whether it retains its diagnostic independence or gets subsumed under the broader “narrative” of depression. In any case, uniformity of diagnosing this culturally relevant yet distressing and highly prevalent condition will remain a major area related to psychiatric research and treatment.

Conclusion DS is a multidimensional psychiatric “construct” which is equally interesting and controversial. Historically relevant and symptomatically mysterious, this disorder provides unique insights into cultural contexts of human behavior and the role of misattributions, beliefs, and misinformation in sexuality. Beyond the traditional debate about its “separate” existence, the high prevalence of DS, associated comorbidities, and resultant dysfunction make it relevant for emotional and psychosexual health. It is also treatable, and hence, the detection, understanding, and awareness become vital to its management. This oration attempts a “bird's eye” view of this CBS taking into account a holistic perspective of the available evidence so far.

The clinical manifestations, diagnostic and epidemiological attributes, management, and nosological controversies are highlighted to provide a comprehensive account of DS and its relevance to mental health. More systematic and mixed methods research are warranted to unravel the enigma of this controversial yet distressing psychiatric disorder.AcknowledgmentI sincerely thank Dr. Debanjan Banerjee (Senior Resident, Department of Psychiatry, NIMHANS, Bangalore) for his constant selfless support, rich academic discourse, and continued collaboration that helped me condense years of research and ideas into this paper.Financial support and sponsorshipNil.Conflicts of interestThere are no conflicts of interest. References 1.2.3.Srinivasa Murthy R, Wig NN. A man ahead of his time.

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16.MacFarland AS, Al-Maashani M, Al Busaidi Q, Al-Naamani A, El-Bouri M, Al-Adawi S. Culture-specific pathogenicity of Dhat (semen loss) Syndrome in an Arab/Islamic Society, Oman. Oman Med J 2017;32:251-5. 17.Rao TS. Comprehensive Study of Prevalence Rates, Symptom Profile, Comorbidity and Management of Dhat Syndrome in Rural and Urban Communities.

PhD Thesis. Department of Psychiatry, Jagadguru Sri Shivarathreeshwara Medical College, JSS University, Shivarathreeshwara Nagar Mysore, Karnataka, India. 2017. 18.Kar SK. Treatment - emergent Dhat syndrome in a young male with obsessive-compulsive disorder.

An alarm for medication nonadherence. Acta Med Int 2019;6:44-45. [Full text] 19.Kuchhal AK, Kumar S, Pardal PK, Aggarwal G. Effect of Dhat syndrome on body and mind. Int J Contemp Med Res 2019;6:H7-10.

20.Shakya DR. Dhat syndrome. Study of clinical presentations in a teaching institute of eastern Nepal. J Psychosexual Health 2019;1:143-8. 21.Leff JP.

Culture and the differentiation of emotional states. Br J Psychiatry 1973;123:299-306. 22.Tiwari SC, Katiyar M, Sethi BB. Culture and mental disorders. An overview.

J Soc Psychiatry 1986;2:403-25. 23.Sameer M, Menon V, Chandrasekaran R. Is 'Pure' Dhat syndrome a stable diagnostic entity?. A naturalistic long term follow up study from a tertiary care centre. J Clin Diagn Res 2015;9:C01-3.

24.Chadda RK. Dhat syndrome. Is it a distinct clinical entity?. A study of illness behaviour characteristics. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1995;91:136-9.

25.Bhatia MS, Bohra N, Malik SC. 'Dhat' syndrome – A useful clinical entity. Indian J Dermatol 1989;34:32-41. 26.Dewaraja R, Sasaki Y. Semen-loss syndrome.

A comparison between Sri Lanka and Japan. American J Psychotherapy 1991;45:14-20. 27.Balhara YP. Culture-bound syndrome. Has it found its right niche?.

Indian J Psychol Med 2011;33:210-5. [PUBMED] [Full text] 28.Prakash, S, Mandal P. Is Dhat syndrome indeed a culturally determined form of depression?. Indian J Psychol Med 2015;37:107-9. 29.Prakash O, Kar SK.

Dhat syndrome. A review and update. J Psychosexual Health 2019;1:241-5. 30.Grover S, Avasthi A, Gupta S, Dan A, Neogi R, Behere PB, et al. Comorbidity in patients with Dhat syndrome.

A nationwide multicentric study. J Sex Med 2015;12:1398-401. 31.Dhikav V, Aggarwal N, Gupta S, Jadhavi R, Singh K. Depression in Dhat syndrome. J Sex Med 2008;5:841-4.

32.Paris A. Dhat syndrome. A review. Transcult Psychiatry Rev 1992;29:109-18. 33.Deb KS, Balhara YP.

Dhat syndrome. A review of the world literature. Indian J Psychol Med 2013;35:326-31. [PUBMED] [Full text] 34.Udina M, Foulon H, Valdés M, Bhattacharyya S, Martín-Santos R. Dhat syndrome.

A systematic review. Psychosomatics 2013;54:212-8. 35.Kar SK, Sarkar S. Dhat syndrome. Evolution of concept, current understanding, and need of an integrated approach.

J Hum Reprod Sci 2015;8:130-4. [PUBMED] [Full text] 36.World Health Organisation. The ICD-10, Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders. Diagnostic Criteria for Research. Geneva.

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Koro in Dhat syndrome. Indian J Soc Psychiatry 1992;8:74-5. 43.Priyadarshi S, Verma A. Dhat syndrome and its social impact. Urol Androl Open J 2015;1:6-11.

44.Nakra BR, Wig NN, Verma VK. A study of male potency disorders. Indian J Psychiatry 1977;19:13-8. [Full text] 45.Behere PB, Natraj GS. Dhat syndrome.

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[PUBMED] [Full text] 47.Bhatia MS, Malik SC. Dhat syndrome – A useful diagnostic entity in Indian culture. Br J Psychiatry 1991;159:691-5. 48.Bhatia MS, Choudhry S, Shome S. Dhat syndrome - Is it a syndrome of Dhat only?.

J Ment Health Hum Behav1997;2:17-22. 49.Bhatia MS. An analysis of 60 cases of culture bound syndromes. Indian J Med Sci 1999;53:149-52. [PUBMED] [Full text] 50.Morrone A, Nosotti L, Tumiati Mc, Cianconi P, Casadei F, Franco G.

Dhat Syndrome. An Analysis of 18 Cases. Paper Presented in 11th Congress of the European Academy of Dermatology &. Venerology. Prague.

Czech. 2002. 51.Carstairs GM. Hinjra and jiryan. Two derivatives of Hindu attitudes to sexuality.

Br J Med Psychol 1956;29:128-38. 52.Carstairs GM. The Twice Born. Bloomington. Indiana University Press.

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54.Sathyanarayana Rao TS. Some thoughts on sexualities and research in India. Indian J Psychiatry 2004;46:3-4. [PUBMED] [Full text] 55.Prakash O, Rao TS. Sexuality research in India.

An update. Indian J Psychiatry 2010;52:S260-3. 56.Avasthi A, Grover S, Rao TS. Clinical practice guidelines for management of sexual dysfunction. Indian J Psychiatry 2017;59 Suppl 1:S91-115.

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59.Yasir Arafat SM. Dhat syndrome. Culture bound, separate entity, or removed. J Behav Health 2017;6:147-50. 60.Prakash S, Sharan P, Sood M.

A qualitative study on psychopathology of dhat syndrome in men. Implications for classification of disorders. Asian J Psychiatr 2018;35:79-88. 61.Lewis-Fernández R, Aggarwal NK. Culture and psychiatric diagnosis.

Adv Psychosom Med 2013;33:15-30. 62.Sharan P, Keeley J. Cultural perspectives related to international classification of diseases-11. Indian J Soc Psychiatry 2018;34 Suppl S1:1-4. Correspondence Address:T S Sathyanarayana RaoDepartment of Psychiatry, JSS Medical College and Hospital, JSS Academy of Higher Education and Research, Mysore - 570 004, Karnataka IndiaSource of Support.

None, Conflict of Interest. NoneDOI. 10.4103/psychiatry.IndianJPsychiatry_791_20.

Abstract Sexual health, an essential component of individual's health, is influenced by many complex issues including sexual behavior, attitudes, societal, and cultural factors on the one cheap viagra canada hand and while on the other hand, biological aspects, genetic predisposition, and associated mental and physical illnesses. Sexual health is a neglected area, even though it influences mortality, morbidity, and disability. Dhat syndrome cheap viagra canada (DS), the term coined by Dr. N.

N. Wig, has been at the forefront of advancements in understanding and misunderstanding. The concept of DS is still evolving being treated as a culture-bound syndrome in the past to a syndrome of depression and treated as “a culturally determined idiom of distress.” It is bound with myths, fallacies, prejudices, secrecy, exaggeration, and value-laden judgments. Although it has been reported from many countries, much of the literature has emanated from Asia, that too mainly from India.

The research in India has ranged from the study of a few cases in the past to recent national multicentric studies concerning phenomenology and beliefs of patients. The epidemiological studies have ranged from being hospital-based to population-based studies in rural and urban settings. There are studies on the management of individual cases by resolving sexual myths, relaxation exercises, supportive psychotherapy, anxiolytics, and antidepressants to broader and deeper research concerning cognitive behavior therapy. The presentation looks into DS as a model case highlighting the importance of exploring sexual health concerns in the Indian population in general and in particular need to reconsider DS in the light of the newly available literature.

It makes a fervent appeal for the inclusion of DS in the mainstream diagnostic categories in the upcoming revisions of the diagnostic manuals which can pave the way for a better understanding and management of DS and sexual problems.Keywords. Culture-bound syndrome, Dhat syndrome, Dhat syndrome management, Dhat syndrome prevalence, psychiatric comorbidity, sexual disordersHow to cite this article:Sathyanarayana Rao T S. History and mystery of Dhat syndrome. A critical look at the current understanding and future directions.

Indian J Psychiatry 2021;63:317-25 Introduction Mr. President, Chairpersons, my respected teachers and seniors, my professional colleagues and friends, ladies and gentlemen:I deem it a proud privilege and pleasure to receive and to deliver DLN Murti Rao Oration Award for 2020. I am humbled at this great honor and remain grateful to the Indian Psychiatric Society (IPS) in general and the awards committee in particular. I would like to begin my presentation with my homage to Professor DLN Murti Rao, who was a Doyen of Psychiatry.[1] I have a special connection to the name as Dr.

Doddaballapura Laxmi Narasimha Murti Rao, apart from a family name, obtained his medical degree from Mysore Medical College, Mysuru, India, the same city where I have served last 33 years in JSS Medical College and JSS Academy of Higher Education and Research. His name carries the reverence in the corridors of the current National Institute of Mental Health and Neuro Sciences (NIMHANS) at Bangalore which was All India Institute of Mental Health, when he served as Head and the Medical Superintendent. Another coincidence was his untimely demise in 1962, the same year another Doyen Dr. Wig[2],[3] published the article on a common but peculiar syndrome in the Indian context and gave the name Dhat syndrome (DS).

Even though Dr. Wig is no more, his legacy of profound contribution to psychiatry and psychiatric education in general and service to the society and Mental Health, in particular, is well documented. His keen observation and study culminated in synthesizing many aspects and developments in DS.I would also like to place on record my humble pranams to my teachers from Christian Medical College, Vellore – Dr. Abraham Varghese, the first Editor of the Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine and Dr.

K. Kuruvilla, Past Editor of Indian Journal of Psychiatry whose legacies I carried forward for both the journals. I must place on record that my journey in the field of Sexual Medicine was sown by Dr. K.

Kuruvilla and subsequent influence of Dr. Ajit Avasthi from Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research from Chandigarh as my role model in the field. There are many more who have shaped and nurtured my interest in the field of sex and sexuality.The term “Dhat” was taken from the Sanskrit language, which is an important word “Dhatu” and has known several meanings such as “metal,” a “medicinal constituent,” which can be considered as most powerful material within the human body.[4] The Dhat disorder is mainly known for “loss of semen”, and the DS is a well-known “culture-bound syndrome (CBS).”[4] The DS leads to several psychosexual disorders such as physical weakness, tiredness, anxiety, appetite loss, and guilt related to the loss of semen through nocturnal emission, in urine and by masturbation as mentioned in many studies.[4],[5],[6] Conventionally, Charaka Samhita mentions “waste of bodily humors” being linked to the “loss of Dhatus.”[5] Semen has even been mentioned by Aristotle as a “soul substance” and weakness associated with its loss.[6] This has led to a plethora of beliefs about “food-blood-semen” relationship where the loss of semen is considered to reduce vitality, potency, and psychophysiological strength. People have variously attributed DS to excessive masturbation, premarital sex, promiscuity, and nocturnal emissions.

Several past studies have emphasized that CBS leads to “anxiety for loss of semen” is not only prevalent in the Indian subcontinent but also a global phenomenon.[7],[8],[9],[10],[11],[12],[13],[14],[15],[16],[17],[18],[19],[20]It is important to note that DS manifestation and the psychosexual features are based on the impact of culture, demographic profiles, and the socioeconomic status of the patients.[7],[8],[9],[10],[11],[12],[13],[14],[15],[16],[17],[18],[19],[20] According to Leff,[21] culture depends upon norms, values, and myths, based on a specific area, and is also shared by the indigenous individuals of that area. Tiwari et al.[22] mentioned in their study that “culture is closely associated with mental disorders through social and psychological activities.” With this background, the paper attempts to highlight the multidimensional construct of DS for a better clinical understanding in routine practice. Dhat Syndrome. A Separate Entity or a “Cultural Variant” of Depression Even though DS has been studied for years now, a consensus on the definition is yet to be achieved.

It has mostly been conceptualized as a multidimensional psychosomatic entity consisting of anxiety, depressive, somatic, and sexual phenomenology. Most importantly, abnormal and erroneous attributions are considered to be responsible for the genesis of DS. The most important debate is, however, related to the nosological status of DS. Although considered to a CBS unique to India, it has also been increasingly reported in China, Europe, Japan, Malaysia, Russia, and America.[11] The consistency and validity of its diagnosis have been consistently debated, and one of the most vital questions that emerged was.

Can there be another way to conceptualize DS?. There is no single answer to that question. Apart from an independent entity, the diagnostic validity of which has been limited in longitudinal studies,[23] it has also been a cultural variant of depressive and somatization disorders. Mumford[11] in his study of Asian patients with DS found a significant association with depressed mood, anxiety, and fatigue.

Around the same time, another study by Chadha[24] reported comorbidities in DS at a rate of 50%, 32%, and 18% related to depression, somatoform disorders, and anxiety, respectively. Depression continued to be reported as the most common association of DS in many studies.[25],[26] This “cause-effect” dilemma can never be fully resolved. Whether “loss of semen” and the cultural attributions to it leads to the affective symptoms or whether low mood and neuroticism can lead to DS in appropriate cultural context are two sides of the argument. However, the cognitive biases resulting in the attributional errors of DS and the subsequently maintained attitudes with relation to sexuality can be explained by the depressive cognitions and concepts of learned helplessness.

Balhara[27] has argued that since DS is not really culture specific as thought of earlier, it should not be solely categorized as a functional somatic syndrome, as that can have detrimental effects on its understanding and management. He also mentions that the underlying “emotional distress and cultural contexts” are not unique to DS but can be related to any psychiatric syndrome for that matter. On the contrary, other researchers have warned that subsuming DS and other CBS under the broader rubric of “mood disorders” can lead to neglect and reductionism in disorder like DS that can have unique cultural connotations.[28] Over the years, there have been multiple propositions to relook and relabel CBS like DS. Considering it as a variant of depression or somatization can make it a “cultural phenotype” of these disorders in certain regions, thus making it easier for the classificatory systems.

This dichotomous debate seems never-ending, but clinically, it is always better to err on over-diagnosing and over-treating depression and anxiety in DS, which can improve the well-being of the distressed patients. Why Discuss Dhat Syndrome. Implications in Clinical Practice DS might occur independently or associated with multiple comorbidities. It has been a widely recognized clinical condition in various parts of the world, though considered specific to the Indian subcontinent.

The presentation can often be polymorphic with symptom clusters of affective, somatic, behavioral, and cognitive manifestations.[29] Being common in rural areas, the first contacts of the patients are frequently traditional faith healers and less often, the general practitioners. A psychiatric referral occurs much later, if at all. This leads to underdetection and faulty treatments, which can strengthen the already existing misattributions and misinformation responsible for maintaining the disorder. Furthermore, depression and sexual dysfunction can be the important comorbidities that if untreated, lead to significant psychosocial dysfunction and impaired quality of life.[30] Besides many patients of DS believe that their symptoms are due to failure of interpersonal relationships, s, and heredity, which might cause early death and infertility.

This contributes to the vicious cycle of fear and panic.[31] Doctor shopping is another challenge and failure to detect and address the concern of DS might lead to dropping out from the care.[15] Rao[17] in their epidemiological study reported 12.5% prevalence in the general population, with 20.5% and 50% suffering from comorbid depression and sexual disorders. The authors stressed upon the importance of early detection of DS for the psychosexual and social well-being. Most importantly, the multidimensional presentation of DS can at certain times be a facade overshadowing underlying neurotic disorders (anxiety, depression, somatoform, hypochondriasis, and phobias), obsessive-compulsive spectrum disorders and body dysmorphic disorders, delusional disorders, sexual disorders (premature ejaculation and erectile dysfunction) and infectious disorders (urinary tract s, sexually transmitted diseases), and even stress-related manifestations in otherwise healthy individuals.[4],[14],[15] This significant overlap of symptomatology, increased prevalence, and marked comorbidity make it all the more important for physicians to make sense out of the construct of DS. That can facilitate prompt detection and management of DS in routine clinical practice.In an earlier review study, it was observed that few studies are undertaken to update the research works from published articles as an updated review, systemic review, world literature review, etc., on DS and its management approach.[29],[32],[33],[34],[35] The present paper attempts to compile the evidence till date on DS related to its nosology, critique, manifestations, and management plan.

The various empirical studies on DS all over the world will be briefly discussed along with the implications and importance of the syndrome. The Construct of Dhat Syndrome. Summary of Current Evidence DS is a well-known CBS, which is defined as undue concern about the weakening effects after the passage of semen in urine or through nocturnal emission that has been stated by the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD-10).[36] It is also known as “semen loss syndrome” by Shakya,[20] which is prevalent mainly in the Indian subcontinent[37] and has also been reported in the South-Eastern and western population.[15],[16],[20],[32],[38],[39],[40],[41] Individuals with “semen loss anxiety” suffer from a myriad of psychosexual symptoms, which have been attributed to “loss of vital essence through semen” (common in South Asia).[7],[15],[16],[17],[32],[37],[41],[42],[43] The various studies related to attributes of DS and their findings are summarized further.Prakash et al.[5] studied 100 DS patients through 139 symptoms of the Associated Symptoms Scale. They studied sociodemographic profile, Hamilton Depression Rating Scale, Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale, Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview, and Postgraduate Institute Neuroticism Scale.

The study found a wide range of physical, anxiety, depression, sexual, and cognitive symptoms. Most commonly associated symptoms were found as per score ≥1. This study reported several parameters such as the “sense of being unhealthy” (99%), worry (99%), feeling “no improvement despite treatment” (97%), tension (97%), tiredness (95%), fatigue (95%), weakness (95%), and anxiety (95%). The common sexual disorders were observed as loss of masculinity (83%), erectile dysfunction (54%), and premature ejaculation (53%).

Majority of patients had faced mild or moderate level of symptoms in which 47% of the patients reported severe weakness. Overall distress and dysfunction were observed as 64% and 81% in the studied subjects, respectively.A study in Taiwan involved 87 participants from a Urology clinic. Most of them have sexual neurosis (Shen-K'uei syndrome).[7] More than one-third of the patients belonged to lower social class and symptoms of depression, somatization, anxiety, masturbation, and nocturnal emissions. Other bodily complaints as reported were sleep disturbances, fatigue, dizziness, backache, and weakness.

Nearly 80% of them considered that all of their problems were due to masturbatory practices.De Silva and Dissanayake[8] investigated several manifestations on semen loss syndrome in the psychiatric clinic of Colombo General Hospital, Sri Lanka. Beliefs regarding effects of semen loss and help-seeking sought for DS were explored. 38 patients were studied after psychiatrically ill individuals and those with organic disorders were excluded. Duration of semen loss varied from 1 to 20 years.

Every participant reported excessive loss of semen and was preoccupied with it. The common forms of semen loss were through nocturnal emission, masturbation, urinary loss, and through sexual activities. Most of them reported multiple modes of semen loss. Masturbatory frequency and that of nocturnal emissions varied significantly.

More than half of the patients reported all types of complaints (psychological, sexual, somatic, and genital).In the study by Chadda and Ahuja,[9] 52 psychiatric patients (mostly adolescents and young adults) complained of passing “Dhat” in urine. They were assessed for a period of 6 months. More than 80% of them complained of body weakness, aches, and pains. More than 50% of the patients suffered from depression and anxiety.

All the participants felt that their symptoms were due to loss of “dhat” in urine, attributed to excessive masturbation, extramarital and premarital sex. Half of those who faced sexual dysfunctions attributed them to semen loss.Mumford[11] proposed a controversial explanation of DS arguing that it might be a part of other psychiatric disorders, like depression. A total of 1000 literate patients were recruited from a medical outdoor in a public sector hospital in Lahore, Pakistan. About 600 educated patients were included as per Bradford Somatic Inventory (BSI).

Men with DS reported greater symptoms on BSI than those without DS. 60 psychiatric patients were also recruited from the same hospital and diagnosed using Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM)-III-R. Among them, 33% of the patients qualified for “Dhat” items on BSI. The symptoms persisted for more than 15 days.

It was observed that symptoms of DS highly correlated with BSI items, namely erectile dysfunction, burning sensation during urination, fatigue, energy loss, and weakness. This comparative study indicated that patients with DS suffered more from depressive disorders than without DS and the age group affected by DS was mostly the young.Grover et al.[15] conducted a study on 780 male patients aged >16 years in five centers (Chandigarh, Jaipur, Faridkot, Mewat, and New Delhi) of Northern India, 4 centers (2 from Kolkata, 1 each in Kalyani and Bhubaneswar) of Eastern India, 2 centers (Agra and Lucknow) of Central India, 2 centers (Ahmedabad and Wardha) of Western India, and 2 centers of Southern India (both located at Mysore) spread across the country by using DS questionnaire. Nearly one-third of the patients were passing “Dhat” multiple times a week. Among them, nearly 60% passed almost a spoonful of “Dhat” each time during a loss.

This work on sexual disorders reported that the passage of “Dhat” was mostly attributed to masturbation (55.1%), dreams on sex (47.3%), sexual desire (42.8%), and high energy foods consumption (36.7%). Mostly, the participants experienced passage of Dhat as “night falls” (60.1%) and “while passing stools” (59.5%). About 75.6% showed weakness in sexual ability as a common consequence of the “loss of Dhat.” The associated symptoms were depression, hopelessness, feeling low, decreased energy levels, weakness, and lack of pleasure. Erectile problems and premature ejaculation were also present.Rao[17] in his first epidemiological study done in Karnataka, India, showed the prevalence rate of DS in general male population as 12.5%.

It was found that 57.5% were suffering either from comorbid depression or anxiety disorders. The prevalence of psychiatric and sexual disorders was about three times higher with DS compared to non-DS subjects. One-third of the cases (32.8%) had no comorbidity in hospital (urban). One-fifth (20.5%) and 50% subjects (51.3%) had comorbid depressive disorders and sexual dysfunction.

The psychosexual symptoms were found among 113 patients who had DS. The most common psychological symptoms reported by the subjects with DS were low self-esteem (100%), loss of interest in any activity (95.60%), feeling of guilt (92.00%), and decreased social interaction (90.30%). In case of sexual disorders, beliefs were held commonly about testes becoming smaller (92.00%), thinness of semen (86.70%), decreased sexual capabilities (83.20%), and tilting of penis (70.80%).Shakya[20] studied a clinicodemographic profile of DS patients in psychiatry outpatient clinic of B. P.

Koirala Institute of Health Sciences, Dharan, Nepal. A total of 50 subjects were included in this study, and the psychiatric diagnoses as well as comorbidities were investigated as per the ICD-10 criteria. Among the subjects, most of the cases had symptoms of depression and anxiety, and all the subjects were worried about semen loss. Somehow these subjects had heard or read that semen loss or masturbation is unhealthy practice.

The view of participants was that semen is very “precious,” needs preservation, and masturbation is a malpractice. Beside DS, two-thirds of the subjects had comorbid depression.In another Indian study, Chadda et al.[24] compared patients with DS with those affected with neurotic/depressive disorders. Among 100 patients, 50%, 32%, and 18% reported depression, somatic problems, and anxiety, respectively. The authors argued that cases of DS have similar symptom dimensions as mood and anxiety disorders.Dhikav et al.[31] examined prevalence and management depression comorbid with DS.

DSM-IV and Hamilton Depression Rating Scale were used for assessments. About 66% of the patients met the DSM-IV diagnostic criteria of depression. They concluded that depression was a frequent comorbidity in DS patients.In a study by Perme et al.[37] from South India that included 32 DS patients, the control group consisted of 33 people from the same clinic without DS, depression, and anxiety. The researchers followed the guidelines of Bhatia and Malik's for the assessment of primary complaints of semen loss through “nocturnal emissions, masturbation, sexual intercourse, and passing of semen before and after urine.” The assessment was done based on several indices, namely “Somatization Screening Index, Illness Behavior Questionnaire, Somatosensory Amplification Scale, Whitley Index, and Revised Chalder Fatigue Scale.” Several complaints such as somatic complaints, hypochondriacal beliefs, and fatigue were observed to be significantly higher among patients with DS compared to the control group.A study conducted in South Hall (an industrial area in the borough of Middlesex, London) included Indian and Pakistani immigrants.

Young men living separately from their wives reported promiscuity, some being infected with gonorrhea and syphilis. Like other studies, nocturnal emission, weakness, and impotency were the other reported complaints. Semen was considered to be responsible for strength and vigor by most patients. Compared to the sexual problems of Indians, the British residents complained of pelvic issues and backache.In another work, Bhatia et al.[42] undertook a study on culture-bound syndromes and reported that 76.7% of the sample had DS followed by possession syndrome and Koro (a genital-related anxiety among males in South-East Asia).

Priyadarshi and Verma[43] performed a study in Urology Department of S M S Hospital, Jaipur, India. They conducted the study among 110 male patients who complained of DS and majority of them were living alone (54.5%) or in nuclear family (30%) as compared to joint family. Furthermore, 60% of them reported of never having experienced sex.Nakra et al.[44] investigated incidence and clinical features of 150 consecutive patients who presented with potency complaints in their clinic. Clinical assessments were done apart from detailed sexual history.

The patients were 15–50 years of age, educated up to mid-school and mostly from a rural background. Most of them were married and reported premarital sexual practices, while nearly 67% of them practiced masturbation from early age. There was significant guilt associated with nocturnal emissions and masturbation. Nearly 27% of the cases reported DS-like symptoms attributing their health problems to semen loss.Behere and Nataraj[45] reported that majority of the patients with DS presented with comorbidities of physical weakness, anxiety, headache, sad mood, loss of appetite, impotence, and premature ejaculation.

The authors stated that DS in India is a symptom complex commonly found in younger age groups (16–23 years). The study subjects presented with complaints of whitish discharge in urine and believed that the loss of semen through masturbation was the reason for DS and weakness.Singh et al.[46] studied 50 cases with DS and sexual problems (premature ejaculation and impotence) from Punjab, India, after exclusion of those who were psychiatrically ill. It was assumed in the study that semen loss is considered synonymous to “loss of something precious”, hence its loss would be associated with low mood and grief. Impotency (24%), premature ejaculation (14%), and “Dhat” in urine (40%) were the common complaints observed.

Patients reported variety of symptoms including anxiety, depression, appetite loss, sleep problems, bodily pains, and headache. More than half of the patients were independently diagnosed with depression, and hence, the authors argued that DS may be a manifestation of depressive disorders.Bhatia and Malik[47] reported that the most common complaints associated with DS were physical weakness, fatigue and palpitation, insomnia, sad mood, headache, guilt feeling and suicidal ideation, impotence, and premature ejaculation. Psychiatric disorders were found in 69% of the patients, out of which the most common was depression followed by anxiety, psychosis, and phobia. About 15% of the patients were found to have premature ejaculation and 8% had impotence.Bhatia et al.[48] examined several biological variables of DS after enrolment of 40 patients in a psychosexual clinic in Delhi.

Patients had a history of impotence, premature ejaculation, and loss of semen (after exclusion of substance abuse and other psychiatric disorders). Twenty years was the mean age of onset and semen loss was mainly through masturbation and sexual intercourse. 67.5% and 75% of them reported sexual disorders and psychiatric comorbidity while 25%, 12.5%, and 37.5% were recorded to suffer from ejaculatory impotence, premature ejaculation, and depression (with anxiety), respectively.Bhatia[49] conducted a study on CBS among 60 patients attending psychiatric outdoor in a teaching hospital. The study revealed that among all patients with CBSs, DS was the most common (76.7%) followed by possession syndrome (13.3%) and Koro (5%).

Hypochondriasis, sexually transmitted diseases, and depression were the associated comorbidities. Morrone et al.[50] studied 18 male patients with DS in the Dermatology department who were from Bangladesh and India. The symptoms observed were mainly fatigue and nonspecific somatic symptoms. DS patients manifested several symptoms in psychosocial, religious, somatic, and other domains.

The reasons provided by the patients for semen loss were urinary loss, nocturnal emission, and masturbation. Dhat Syndrome. The Epidemiology The typical demographic profile of a DS patient has been reported to be a less educated, young male from lower socioeconomic status and usually from rural areas. In the earlier Indian studies by Carstairs,[51],[52],[53] it was observed that majority of the cases (52%–66.7%) were from rural areas, belonged to “conservative families and posed rigid views about sex” (69%-73%).

De Silva and Dissanayake[8] in their study on semen loss syndrome reported the average age of onset of DS to be 25 years with most of them from lower-middle socioeconomic class. Chadda and Ahuja[9] studied young psychiatric patients who complained of semen loss. They were mainly manual laborers, farmers, and clerks from low socioeconomic status. More than half were married and mostly uneducated.

Khan[13] studied DS patients in Pakistan and reported that majority of the patients visited Hakims (50%) and Homeopaths (24%) for treatment. The age range was wide between 12 and 65 years with an average age of 24 years. Among those studied, majority were unmarried (75%), literacy was up to matriculation and they belonged to lower socioeconomic class. Grover et al.[15] in their study of 780 male subjects showed the average age of onset to be 28.14 years and the age ranged between 21 and 30 years (55.3%).

The subjects were single or unmarried (51.0%) and married (46.7%). About 23.5% of the subjects had graduated and most were unemployed (73.5%). Majority of subjects were lower-middle class (34%) and had lower incomes. Rao[17] studied 907 subjects, in which majority were from 18 to 30 years (44.5%).

About 45.80% of the study subjects were illiterates and very few had completed postgraduation. The subjects were both married and single. Majority of the subjects were residing in nuclear family (61.30%) and only 0.30% subjects were residing alone. Most of the patients did not have comorbid addictive disorders.

The subjects were mainly engaged in agriculture (43.40%). Majority of the subjects were from lower middle and upper lower socioeconomic class.Shakya[20] had studied the sociodemographic profile of 50 patients with DS. The average age of the studied patients was 25.4 years. The age ranges in decreasing order of frequency were 16–20 years (34%) followed by 21–25 years (28%), greater than 30 years (26%), 26–30 years (10%), and 11–15 years (2%).

Further, the subjects were mostly students (50%) and rest were in service (26%), farmers (14%), laborers (6%), and business (4%), respectively. Dhikav et al.[31] conducted a study on 30 patients who had attended the Psychiatry Outpatient Clinic of a tertiary care hospital with complaints of frequently passing semen in urine. In the studied patients, the age ranged between 20 and 40 years with an average age of 29 years and average age of onset of 19 years. The average duration of illness was that of 11 months.

Most of the studied patients were unmarried (64.2%) and educated till middle or high school (70%). Priyadarshi and Verma[43] performed a study in 110 male patients with DS. The average age of the patients was 23.53 years and it ranged between 15 and 68 years. The most affected age group of patients was of 18–25 years, which comprised about 60% of patients.

On the other hand, about 25% ranged between 25 and 35 years, 10% were lesser than 18 years of age, and 5.5% patients were aged >35 years. Higher percentage of the patients were unmarried (70%). Interestingly, high prevalence of DS was found in educated patients and about 50% of patients were graduate or above but most of the patients were either unemployed or student (49.1%). About 55% and 24.5% patients showed monthly family income of <10,000 and 5000 Indian Rupees (INR), respectively.

Two-third patients belonged to rural areas of residence. Behere and Nataraj[45] found majority of the patients with DS (68%) to be between 16 and 25 years age. About 52% patients were married while 48% were unmarried and from lower socioeconomic strata. The duration of DS symptoms varied widely.

Singh[46] studied patients those who reported with DS, impotence, and premature ejaculation and reported the average age of the affected to be 21.8 years with a younger age of onset. Only a few patients received higher education. Bhatia and Malik[47] as mentioned earlier reported that age at the time of onset of DS ranged from 16 to 24 years. More than half of them were single.

It was observed that most patients had some territorial education (91.67%) but few (8.33%) had postgraduate education or professional training. Finally, Bhatia et al.[48] studied cases of sexual dysfunctions and reported an average age of 21.6 years among the affected, majority being unmarried (80%). Most of those who had comorbid DS symptoms received minimal formal education. Management.

A Multimodal Approach As mentioned before, individuals affected with DS often seek initial treatment with traditional healers, practitioners of alternative medicine, and local quacks. As a consequence, varied treatment strategies have been popularized. Dietary supplements, protein and iron-rich diet, Vitamin B and C-complexes, antibiotics, multivitamin injections, herbal “supplements,” etc., have all been used in the treatment though scientific evidence related to them is sparse.[33] Frequent change of doctors, irregular compliance to treatment, and high dropout from health care are the major challenges, as the attributional beliefs toward DS persist in the majority even after repeated reassurance.[54] A multidisciplinary approach (involving psychiatrists, clinical psychologists, psychiatric social workers) is recommended and close liaison with the general physicians, the Ayurveda, Yoga, Unani, Siddha, Homeopathy practitioners, dermatologists, venereologists, and neurologists often help. The role of faith healers and local counselors is vital, and it is important to integrate them into the care of DS patients, rather than side-tracking them from the system.

Community awareness needs to be increased especially in primary health care for early detection and appropriate referrals. Follow-up data show two-thirds of patients affected with DS recovering with psychoeducation and low-dose sedatives.[45] Bhatia[49] studied 60 cases of DS and reported better response to anti-anxiety and antidepressant medications compared to psychotherapy alone. Classically, the correction of attributional biases through empathy, reflective, and nonjudgmental approaches has been proposed.[38] Over the years, sex education, psychotherapy, psychoeducation, relaxation techniques, and medications have been advocated in the management of DS.[9],[55] In psychotherapy, cognitive behavioral and brief solution-focused approaches are useful to target the dysfunctional assumptions and beliefs in DS. The role of sex education is vital involving the basic understanding of sexual anatomy and physiology of sexuality.

This needs to be tailored to the local terminology and beliefs. Biofeedback has also been proposed as a treatment modality.[4] Individual stress factors that might have precipitated DS need to be addressed. A detailed outline of assessment, evaluation, and management of DS is beyond the scope of this article and has already been reported in the IPS Clinical Practice Guidelines.[56] The readers are referred to these important guidelines for a comprehensive read on management. Probably, the most important factor is to understand and resolve the sociocultural contexts in the genesis of DS in each individual.

Adequate debunking of the myths related to sexuality and culturally appropriate sexual education is vital both for the prevention and treatment of DS.[56] Adequate treatment of comorbidities such as depression and anxiety often helps in reduction of symptoms, more so when the DS is considered to be a manifestation of the same. Future of Dhat Syndrome. The Way Forward Classifications in psychiatry have always been fraught with debates and discussion such as categorical versus dimensional, biological versus evolutionary. CBS like DS forms a major area of this nosological controversy.

Longitudinal stability of a diagnosis is considered to be an important part of its independent categorization. Sameer et al.[23] followed up DS patients for 6.0 ± 3.5 years and concluded that the “pure” variety of DS is not a stable diagnostic entity. The authors rather proposed DS as a variant of somatoform disorder, with cultural explanations. The right “place” for DS in classification systems has mostly been debated and theoretically fluctuant.[14] Sridhar et al.[57] mentioned the importance of reclassifying DS from a clinically, phenomenologically, psycho-pathologically, and diagnostically valid standpoint.

Although both ICD and DSM have been culturally sensitive to classification, their approach to DS has been different. While ICD-10 considers DS under “other nonpsychotic mental disorders” (F48), DSM-V mentions it only in appendix section as “cultural concepts of distress” not assigning the condition any particular number.[12],[58] Fundamental questions have actually been raised about its separate existence altogether,[35] which further puts its diagnostic position in doubt. As discussed in the earlier sections, an alternate hypothesization of DS is a cultural variant of depression, rather than a “true syndrome.”[27] Over decades, various schools of thought have considered DS either to be a global phenomenon or a cultural “idiom” of distress in specific geographical regions or a manifestation of other primary psychiatric disorders.[59] Qualitative studies in doctors have led to marked discordance in their opinion about the validity and classificatory area of DS.[60] The upcoming ICD-11 targets to pay more importance to cultural contexts for a valid and reliable classification. However, separating the phenomenological boundaries of diseases might lead to subsetting the cultural and contextual variants in broader rubrics.[61],[62] In that way, ICD-11 might propose alternate models for distinction of CBS like DS at nosological levels.[62] It is evident that various factors include socioeconomics, acceptability, and sustainability influence global classificatory systems, and this might influence the “niche” of DS in the near future.

It will be interesting to see whether it retains its diagnostic independence or gets subsumed under the broader “narrative” of depression. In any case, uniformity of diagnosing this culturally relevant yet distressing and highly prevalent condition will remain a major area related to psychiatric research and treatment. Conclusion DS is a multidimensional psychiatric “construct” which is equally interesting and controversial. Historically relevant and symptomatically mysterious, this disorder provides unique insights into cultural contexts of human behavior and the role of misattributions, beliefs, and misinformation in sexuality.

Beyond the traditional debate about its “separate” existence, the high prevalence of DS, associated comorbidities, and resultant dysfunction make it relevant for emotional and psychosexual health. It is also treatable, and hence, the detection, understanding, and awareness become vital to its management. This oration attempts a “bird's eye” view of this CBS taking into account a holistic perspective of the available evidence so far. The clinical manifestations, diagnostic and epidemiological attributes, management, and nosological controversies are highlighted to provide a comprehensive account of DS and its relevance to mental health.

More systematic and mixed methods research are warranted to unravel the enigma of this controversial yet distressing psychiatric disorder.AcknowledgmentI sincerely thank Dr. Debanjan Banerjee (Senior Resident, Department of Psychiatry, NIMHANS, Bangalore) for his constant selfless support, rich academic discourse, and continued collaboration that helped me condense years of research and ideas into this paper.Financial support and sponsorshipNil.Conflicts of interestThere are no conflicts of interest. References 1.2.3.Srinivasa Murthy R, Wig NN. A man ahead of his time.

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Correspondence Address:T S Sathyanarayana RaoDepartment of Psychiatry, JSS Medical College and Hospital, JSS Academy of Higher Education and Research, Mysore - 570 004, Karnataka IndiaSource of Support. None, Conflict of Interest. NoneDOI. 10.4103/psychiatry.IndianJPsychiatry_791_20.

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